Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, or quantum theory), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental branch of physics concerned with processes involving, for example, atoms and photons.
Description
In such processes, the action has been observed to be only in integer multiples of the Planck constant, a physical quantity that is exceedingly, indeed perhaps ultimately, small. It is said to be quantized. Other physical quantities change in corresponding discrete amounts. In the light of the laws of classical physics, this discreteness has no explanation, and seems perhaps mysterious. Moreover, it entails that the finest possible experimental preparation of a physical system is defined by quanta, and that the finest possible physical observation is of a single quantum. Physical measurements a priori, in classical terms, assume that continuous measurements are possible. Consequently, quantum phenomena can be accurately described only if the elementary processes are conceived as stochastic or probabilistic, averaging to provide continuous measurements. The vast numbers of elementary quantum effects involved in everyday macroscopic observations mean that discrete quantum behaviors are usually hidden by much larger statistical effects, as averages. Quantum mechanics often leads to classical mechanics in macroscopic situations.
Important applications of quantum mechanical theory include superconducting magnets, LEDs and the laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor, medical and research imaging such as MRI and electron microscopy, and explanations for many biological and physical phenomena.
Two fundamental quantum mechanical principles are wave-particle duality (quanta exhibit both 'wave-like' behaviors such as refraction and 'particle-like' behavior), the uncertainty principle (attempting to measure one attribute such as velocity or position may cause another attribute to become less measurable), and superposition and the status of the observer (a wave function superimposes multiple co-existing states that have different probabilities; observation causes collapse of the wave function to some specific state, in several interpretations, as in the famous example of Schrödinger's Cat).
Quantum mechanics gradually arose from Max Planck's solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem (reported 1859) and Albert Einstein's 1905 paper which offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect (reported 1887). Around 1900-1910, the atomic theory and the corpuscular theory of light<ref>Template:Cite book, Extract of page 3678</ref> first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact; these latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation, respectively. Early quantum theory was significantly reformulated in the mid-1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Pascual Jordan (matrix mechanics); Louis de Broglie and Erwin Schrödinger (wave mechanics); and Wolfgang Pauli and Satyendra Nath Bose (statistics of subatomic particles). Moreover, the Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized by the work of David Hilbert, Paul Dirac and John von Neumann<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> with greater emphasis on measurement, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality, and philosophical speculation about the 'observer'. It has since permeated many disciplines including quantum chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics, and quantum information science. Its speculative modern developments include string theory and quantum gravity theories. It also provides a useful framework for many features of the modern periodic table of elements, and describes the behaviors of atoms during chemical bonding and the flow of electrons in computer semiconductors, and therefore plays a crucial role in many modern technologies.
The mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics are abstract. A mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle. Mathematical manipulations of the wave function usually involve bra–ket notation, which requires an understanding of complex numbers and linear functionals. The wavefunction formulation treats the particle as a quantum harmonic oscillator, and the mathematics is akin to that describing acoustic resonance. Many of the results of quantum mechanics are not easily visualized in terms of classical mechanics. For instance, in a quantum mechanical model, the lowest energy state of a system, the ground state, is non-zero as opposed to a more "traditional" ground state with zero kinetic energy (all particles at rest). Instead of a traditional static, unchanging zero energy state, quantum mechanics allows for far more dynamic, chaotic possibilities, according to John Wheeler.
The term "quantum" itself (plural: quanta) comes from the Latin word quantus meaning how much or as much as, referring to discrete units of change.
See also
External links
- Quantum mechanic @ Wikipedia
